Describe the concept of development? B.Ed childhood and growing up

Describe the concept of development?  B.Ed childhood and growing up

Answer:  Development: meaning and nature

In today's era, due to the development of knowledge and science, human development has been documented. In the history of human development, many new branches of knowledge and science have developed. Psychology also presents many new aspects of the development of a person from the time of conception till death, which leads to new achievements. L.E. Taylor has said- “ Man is in a process of changing from what he is now to something different at every moment of his life. His entire style is changing and it is necessary to keep in mind both the style and the fact of change at the same time. What the style will be at a particular stage depends on the earlier style and the influences exerted on the individual by his present environment. It also depends on his own reactions to things that have happened before and to the influences that are being exerted on him now. Any individual to any extent creates his style of life through his choices and decisions in successive stages. Once the choice has been made and the influence of that choice has been exerted on the developing structure, it can never be erased. Development is a one-way street.”

From conception to birth, many types of changes take place in a person which are considered as the physical development of the foetus. After birth, it indicates some specific changes ; such as the symptoms of movement , language , emotion and sociality start appearing in him. This sequence of development is influenced by the environment. It is necessary for every person to gain knowledge about the various stages of the child's development to achieve success. He can develop his working system according to the changes taking place in the child due to these stages.

Birth , development and death of a person have always remained a matter of curiosity for human studies. The study of development has started to know the completeness of human behaviour. Thus its importance has increased further. Today, gaining knowledge of the various stages of a person's development has become necessary to study many new aspects.

Development of a person means the state from the time he is in the womb till he attains maturity. The living being exists due to the union of the paternal and maternal fibers. Till the time the fetus does not come out of the womb , it is called the gestation period. The fetus remains in the womb for 9 calendar months and 10 or 12 days or 10 lunar months or 280 days and its development continues there. During this period, the organs of its body develop. When the fetus is fully developed, it cannot stay in the womb and has to come out. On coming out of the womb, a new phase of its development begins. This is called the post-embryo stage. While defining such development, Munro has said- “ The stage of the chain of changes , in which the child passes from the embryonic stage to the adult stage , is called development.”

Development does not mean growing up or increasing height and weight. There is a definite order of progress in development towards maturity. It is a progressive series. The meaning of progress is also directional , this direction is forward as well as backward. Definite order means that there is order in development. Every type of change is based on the way it determines the order. According to Gasel- “ Development is a thing of more importance than normal effort. Development can be observed and to some extent it can be evaluated and measured. Its measurement and evaluation can be done in three forms- ( i) body building , (ii) physiological , (iii) behavioral. Behavioral signs form a detailed picture of the level and powers of development.”

Meaning of development :

Development means change. Change is a process which goes on all the time. Hence development is also happening every moment. According to Harlock- “ Development is not limited to growing up. In fact, it is a systematic and consistent progressive sequence which helps in attaining maturity. ”

Development is the root of thinking. It is a multifaceted process and it includes not only the development of body parts but also the changes in social and emotional states. Development of powers and abilities is also included in this. Henry Cesal Weld has defined development as follows: ( 1) Reasons and process of development , process inherent in any action , (2) The stage of development of civilization in human mind , life of living beings or that process of development which is in a position to contribute to growth , expansion etc. , (3) The result of the process of development which appears in the form of many reasons , conditions , class-distinctions etc. social problems .

Similarly, James Dewar has defined development as follows : “ Development is a condition which is expressed continuously in a living being in the form of progressive change. This progressive change takes place in any living being from embryonic stage to adulthood. It controls the development system in a general way. It is the standard of progress and it starts from zero. ”

Study of Development :

(1) From ancient to modern times- Today, along with the development of knowledge and science, the study of child development is becoming important. In the Vedas too, special verses are found on child development- ' O dear child! May your mind , speech , life , eyes , ears be well developed. May the wickedness be removed from your nature , may you become pure and holy ; may your patience be well developed. May day and night give you peace and may your parents keep providing security. ' Four hundred years ago, Plato had emphasized on the development and training of the child. Plato was of the opinion that individual differences are found in the child and it is essential to develop those individual differences. In the seventeenth century, John Locke, while emphasizing on the development of the child, had emphasized on the development of his innate tendencies and habits. Rousseau gave the slogan of 'Go towards nature' and in the plan of progressives, explained the process of development of the child through the characters named Emil and Sophie. Similarly, Harlock has thrown light on the studies , ideologies and process of child development in the books titled Child Development and Developmental Psychology.

(2) Biological Aspect- Biological study of child development began with Darwin's theory of natural evolution and struggle for existence. Similarly, Mendel, by experimenting on mice , peas and chicks, brought out new concepts of heredity and environment, important aspects of child development. Pavlov, by experimenting on dogs, threw light on conditioned response. Watson conducted many experiments to study emotional states in children.

( 3) Biography- Child development has also been studied through biography. In the eighteenth century, Tiedemann studied the physical and psychological development of children between one and a half to two years of age. Many biographies of infants have been published in the twentieth century. Although these biographies are not official, they have been helpful in the study of child development.

( 4) Experimentalism- With the development of scientific approach, experimental and observational studies developed. G. Stanhall Hall has provided experimental direction in the field of child development. Conklin , Presl , Goddard , Kuhlman , Mateer and Terman have invented many methods and systems for the study of human development. Hall has established new ideas related to child development in two reports related to the study of adolescents. Binet has set a record in the study of psychological development of children. He has created many intelligence tests in collaboration with Simon.

Today many scholars and many institutions across the world are engaged in the study of child development. Based on the results of the studies conducted by them, many schemes have been started and the personality of children has been developed. In India, the ' Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development ' is working in this direction.

 

Growth and Development :

The nature of a child's development is influenced by two general factors-

( 1) The composition of the paternal chromosomes of the child's father and the lineage , (2) Effects after pregnancy. Many small factors and counteractants are present in the process of biological lineage and social lineage. The child's development process is affected by the effects on the paternal chromosomes. The biological nature of development should be explained in the context of the life pattern at all stages. Development takes into account the all-round aspect. In this , any one aspect cannot be studied separately.

(1) Relation of development with maturity- Growth is related to physical and mental maturity. Development is also related to the environment. Another view is that development is the sum of the total changes taking place in an organism whereas growth expresses only a particular aspect or partial form. But we can clearly say that growth and development are two words which complement each other.

(2) Not uniform pattern - The pattern of development in growth is not uniform. There are individual differences in growth. Growth of every child is different. There is similarity in the stages of development but there is difference in its rate , extent and variation. Growth is influenced by environmental factors. Whether this influence on growth is beneficial or detrimental depends on environmental factors. An individual reacts to his environment and development of maturity is related to growth.

(3) Systematic term- As far as development is concerned , it is a systematic aspect. It is a process in which changes induced by internal physical changes and psychological processes are studied. Anderson did not consider development as merely a physical change but he accepted it as a process of coordinating structure and function.

Theories of Development :

Many scholars have studied the principles of development but the contribution of Eric H. Erickson , Jean Piaget and Robert R. Sears has been special in developing this trend and knowledge. These three scholars have thought about different aspects of development - emotional , mental and social development. All these principles provide a holistic form to the context of child development. These principles are as follows-

1. Psychoanalytic theory- The proponent of this theory is Eric H. Erickson. He was born in 1902 in Frankfurt region of Germany to Danish parents . Due to the early death of his father, his mother remarried and his stepfather adopted him. His initial name was Homburger but later he changed his name. Erickson developed his concept on the principles of Freud. Erickson has been so honest towards his intellect that he says- “ I am not developing a new theory. ” His opinion differs from Freud’s opinion in three ways.

(1) Erikson emphasizes the transition from id to ego. This concept was developed by Freud in Problems of Anxiety. Erikson believes that mutual social relations develop from id and ego.

( 2) Erikson has seen the individual in his environment. This environment consists of the individual , family , society and culture. This leads to the development of social mobility.

(3) Erikson is also conscious of the demands of the times. It is only by overcoming psychological barriers that a person gains opportunities for development.

The essence of the psycho-analytic principles of development propounded by Erikson is as follows:

(i) This principle emphasises on completeness and organisation.

( ii) There is a sequence of development in human life.

( iii) He believes in basic human values.

(iv) Believes in the existence of elements that govern human behavior such as power , drive , tendency. Work

(v) He is a full supporter of Freud's view that human actions lead to development of many aspects of life.

(vi) Creation of social , cultural and ideological environment is essential for human development .

Erikson's contribution has been significant in developing new concepts and beliefs in the field of child development. According to Henry W. Mayer - " After Freud, Erikson, as a researcher , creative thinker and writer, has studied the individual in the context of the entire environment. He has done great work in the field of psychological theory. He has considered the individual as a user of internal powers in the context of the environment."

2. Cognitive theory- Jean Piaget, the proponent of this theory, was born in New Chatel in 1896. His development was influenced by his mad mother and intelligent father.

Along with natural science, the influence of philosophy and psychology is also reflected on Piaget's ideas.

Piaget's opinion is one-sided. It lays more emphasis on human behaviour. He made biology the basis of his study. His study started with survey and research. He collected basic information by surveying different kinds of creatures. On this basis, he saw universal laws. Development sequence- There is unity in the whole world and it is natural. It takes different forms in different creatures. He described the contribution of conscious , unconscious , identity , play , emotion etc. in personality development. In his opinion, a person progresses on the path of development only by fulfilling the needs developed in the environment. The essence of Piaget's opinion is as follows-

( i) All development is unidirectional.

(ii) All aspects of development are found at mental levels.

( iii) There is a difference in the behaviour of children and adults.

( iv) All types of mature behaviour have their roots in the behaviour of infancy.

Piaget has divided the theory of development into sensory cognition, initial stage and cognitive stage. Sensory development takes place in the first 24 months. After this, cognitive development takes place. In this, thinking , logic and imagination develop. The rate of development propounded by Piaget is so systematic that it has developed many new concepts-

(i) All aspects of development proceed in the same order.

( ii) In the complex process of development, development progresses naturally and spontaneously.

( iii) Every type of development starts with a pure general problem.

( iv) First there is physical development , then social and ideological development.

(v) Ego plays an important role in the development of personality.

( vi) Intellectual behaviour develops actively and passively.

( vii) Development occurs from gross to subtle.

(viii) Morality , justice and prevention develop more through social interaction.

(ix) The qualities and characteristics acquired during earlier stages of development remain with us throughout life.

Henry W. Mayer has rightly said- " Piaget's developmental tendencies describe the potential of a person. Through this, we can declare the condition of the person , extent of understanding etc. during development."

3. Learning Theory- The learning theory of development has been propounded by Robert Richardson Sears. He was born ( 1908) in Palo Alto, California. He was particularly interested in the learning process of a child. His ideas were influenced by Clark Hull. The ideas propounded by him are a combination of both behaviorism and psychoanalysis .

Learning theory emphasizes on the basic needs of the child and the development of his ability to learn based on them. Needs give rise to those drivers which motivate a person to learn an activity. A child can suck the breast , hold an object , eat , drink , his needs are at the root of all these activities. Sears' opinion is explanatory. It points towards such development which has remained untouched. His opinion regarding the development of a child is-

(i) Along with development, the speed of learning and working of the child also keeps changing.

(ii) Curiosity and desire arise in a child due to social contact.

The physical and social development of a child depends on his environment. The pace of development depends on the sequence of previous behaviour. The process of socialisation also takes place on this basis. The role of parents becomes very complex in this process. Sears does not emphasize on socio-economic factors in the process of child development. Therefore, he says- “ Nurturing a child is a continuous process. Every moment that a child spends with his parents points towards his future behaviour . The development of a child is a sequential process. He adopts new behaviour according to the conditions of life.”

Therefore , it can be said that the development of a child is the perfection of the child's behaviour. The child develops in the same way as he behaves. His behaviour is a result of his social experiences. This is the blossoming process of the development of the child and the parent.

Features of development :

When we talk about the development of any person, we mean his efficiency, maturity and strength. Therefore, while considering the general principles of development, we have to pay special attention to these principles.

(1) Principle of Maturity- When a person reacts efficiently to his internal forces and environment , then we assume that he has become capable of performing certain specific actions or has become mature. Maturity generally brings stability. This stability is in height , personality outcome etc. which ultimately affects the learning capacity of the child. Maturity and learning , two aspects of development, are so closely related to each other that they cannot be separated. Heredity and environment also affect the capacity to mature.

(2) Instinctual Approach- McDougall has analysed instinctive behaviour in the context of evolution. McDougall described maternal instinct in females and emphasised that their development takes place on the basis of these instincts. If instincts are used only for patterns of complex behaviour and these patterns influence development, then we can assume that learning cannot take place in their absence. Clark and Veergh introduced female hormones into the body of a male chimpanzee and as a result, he developed the qualities of obedience and social dominance. The reason for this is that human behaviour is influenced by the development of certain glands and their chemical action.

(3) Instinctual Access- Watson says that all children are the same at birth. They have a definite anatomy , they have some instinctive actions and three emotions- love , fear and anger. Apart from these, there are some acquired tendencies.

The child uses them according to the environment and this is their response. This spontaneous action itself indicates the development of the child.

Some distinctive features of development :

( 1) From general to specific- According to this theory, the child develops from general conditions. Gradually this development takes place towards specific conditions. In the beginning, the child operates the whole hand and gradually he gains control over the fingers also. Similarly, relationships develop. In the beginning, he feels only excitement. Later on, he also learns to express emotions. The development of language also begins with crying. Through meaningless meaningful words, he reaches the development of sentences.

(2) Cephalocaust theory- The followers of this theory say that the process of development starts from the head. Even in the embryonic stage, the head develops first. After the head, the torso and legs etc. develop. Even after birth, the child first turns his head here and there and tries to lift it up. He starts sitting and walking later. This theory is based on the process of physical development.

( 3) Near-Distant Theory- Believers of this view say that the focal point of development is the nervous system. First the nervous system develops , after this the parts near the nervous system develop such as heart , chest , elbow etc. After this fingers etc. develop.

(4) Organized process - Development of a child does not mean only physical development. Along with physical development, mental , emotional and social development also takes place, which leads to completeness in personality. Therefore, Olson and Hughes have developed the concept of organic age. According to this concept, if a child is 8 years old physically, then he may be 12 years old mentally . He may be 14 years old emotionally . Therefore, development cannot be confined to any one age limit. It is an organized process.

(5) Principle of Difference- The pace of development is not the same. It continues throughout life but its forms are different. The pace of development is fast in infancy. The pace is slow in childhood and it becomes fast and completes in adolescence. The development of boys and girls also does not happen in the same way. There is difference in it too.

(6) Continuous process- The process of development continues from conception till death. The truth is that this is a continuous process which every living being has to go through. The basis of behaviour keeps changing every moment and the pace of development is identified by the change in behaviour.

(7) Similar patterns of development process- Believers of this view say that the process of development in the same species flows through similar patterns. Whether a person is born in America or India , his physical , mental , emotional, language etc. development is similar to that of other individuals.

Nature of development :

By studying the general and special principles of development, one important thing becomes clear , that is- the process of development moves forward with some of its characteristics. From this we come to know- ( 1) what possibilities can be expected from each child at his stage of development ; (2) what form of behavior develops at these stages of development ; (3) according to the age , height , weight and mental development of the child, we can develop possibilities of guidance for him. These characteristics appear during the development process.

( 1) Size and weight- During physical growth, changes are visible in the size and weight of the child. As the child grows , there is an abnormal increase in the weight , height and diameter of the body . Internal organs like heart , lungs , intestines , abdomen etc. grow. Similarly, mental development also takes place.

( 2) Proportional change- During the process of development, there is a proportional change in the physical development of the child. On this basis, the child cannot be accepted as a miniature adult. Its growth occurs in proportion to the body of an adult. Proportional changes are also seen in the mental development of the child. There is a proportional change in the interest , ability , capacity , activity of the child.

(3) Changes in old structure- Along with development, changes keep on taking place in the physical structure of the child. These changes take place in the test , teeth , chest etc. due to thymus and pineal glands. Changes also take place in thinking , mobility , crawling , crawling , taste , sense of smell etc.

(4) Adoption of new features - In the middle of the development process, where the old features end , the child's body starts adopting a new feature. His physical and mental form starts emerging in a new form. The emergence of old and new teeth , emergence of sexual characteristics etc. are examples of this. In the context of the characteristics of development, Havenghurst has said - " When the body becomes mature and the person is ready to do any work , the society needs him. At such a time in the development process, the person learns new knowledge and skills."

(5) Declaration of development- What is the pace of development ? What will be its form? It is possible to declare all these. The future shape of the child can be declared by the X-ray of his wrist. Future planning can be done on the basis of the pace of development of the child.

(6) Definite pattern of development- Whatever form development takes , it has a definite pattern. It may look chaotic to us but it emerges in a definite order. Gassell has considered this to be a law of nature.

( 7) Specialty is found in development- In every stage of development, some complexes develop. According to Fieldman- “ Human life passes through many stages , human life is not less than the foetal stage in any stage. In every stage, impressive characteristics emerge , they have specialties. Unity and uniqueness are found in this.

These characteristics of development may be briefly stated as follows-

1. Development has a definite form.

2. Development takes place in an order determined by nature.

3. Development takes place from the general to the specific.

4. Development is a continuous process.

5. There is variation in the rate of development.

6. Different parts of the body develop in different ways.

7. Most of the development packages are interrelated.

8. Future announcement of development is possible.

9. Each stage of development has its own characteristics.

10. Behaviors that we consider abnormal become normal during the process of development .

11. Every person goes through a process of development.

Factors affecting development :

The development of a child is an investment for any nation. If his development does not take place properly, then not only the child is affected but the nation also gets weakened. Explaining the objective of development, Swami Vivekananda has said- "Be moral , be brave , be a whole-hearted moral person who can fight even difficult situations. Do not get into mental difficulties by getting entangled in religious elements. Only cowards commit sins. Brave people never commit sins , not even in their minds. " Hence, the objective of the development process is to make the child brave , determined and determined. It is not the child who has to prepare for this but his mother has to do it. The factors affecting the development of the child are as follows.

(1) Intelligence- Intelligence has a great and important impact on the development of a child. If a child is intelligent, he shows readiness to learn new things and attains maturity quickly. On the contrary, children with low intellect may develop physically , but their social , emotional, moral and mental development remains very slow. Terman studied the stage when a child walks and works for the first time. Those who walk in the 13th month are found to be sharp-witted , those who walk in the 14th month are normal , those who walk in the 22nd month are retarded and those who walk in the 23rd month are dull-witted. Similarly, in the study of speaking, children who start speaking at 11, 16, 34 and 51 months were found to be sharp-witted , normal , dull and dull in the same order .

(2) Sex- Sex plays an important role in the development of a child. It affects the physical and mental development of the child. At birth, boys are larger in size than girls but girls grow at a faster rate. Sexual maturity comes early in girls and they attain their full size sooner than boys. Mental development of boys takes place later than girls.

(3) Secretion of glands- The study of glands has presented new results in the field of development. The development of the child is influenced by the secretion of glands. This effect occurs both before birth and after birth. For example , calcium circulates in the blood through the thyroid gland in the neck. Its defect causes excessive sensitivity in the muscles. Thyroxine, which is secreted by the thyroid glands , is essential for mental and physical growth. Its deficiency makes the child stupid. Similarly, the secretions from the thymus gland located in the chest and the pineal gland located at the base of the brain lead to sexual development. Defects in this cause sexual maturity in the child to occur early.

(4) Nutrition- Nutrition has a complete impact on the development of a child. For a child, diet alone is not sufficient, but balanced nutrients present in that diet are also essential. Vitamins , proteins , fats , carbohydrates , salts , sugar etc. are such elements that contribute to the balanced development of both the body and the mind. In the absence of nutrients, the child does not develop in a balanced manner.

(5) Pure air and light- In the early days of life, a child needs pure air and light. Air and light are essential elements for the development of a child. Their absence makes the body incapacitated.

( 6) Disease and injury - A child's mental development gets obstructed if he gets a head injury. If the mother smokes or takes toxins in the form of medicines during pregnancy, then it also affects the child in the womb. If the child is sick, then it is natural that his future development will be adversely affected.

( 7) Race - The effect of race elements has been observed on the development of the child. Although Harlock did not confirm this view, Ang considers race effect to be important in the development of the child. Children living on the Mediterranean coast develop physically faster than children in the rest of Europe. Negro children attain maturity 80 percent faster than white children.

(8) Culture - Dennis studied the effect of culture on the development of children. He studied the Red Indian children of America and the rest of the normal American children. He concluded that despite cultural differences, the social and dynamic responses of the Red Indian children remained the same. Shyness , fear etc. developed at the same age level. He also studied and compared the history of 40 white children. Dennis' conclusion was - " The characteristics of infancy are universal and culture creates differences in them."

(9) Position in the family - The development of a child also depends on his position in the family . It is often seen that the first child or the last child is brought up with special love and affection. As far as learning is concerned , younger children learn faster than their elder siblings. The author's elder daughter learnt to ride a bicycle in eight days and when the bicycle came home, the younger daughter learnt to ride a bicycle in a single day.

In this way, we see that all these factors play a part in influencing development and growth and no one can remain untouched by this.

System of study of development :

To study the problems of any science, one has to resort to some methods and techniques. Methods and techniques should be flawless. The results obtained from them should be valid and reliable. There are many systems in vogue for studying child development , the main ones among them are-

(1) Biography method- In this method, the life history of the child is carefully collected. Many events occurring from the time of birth of the child are recorded. The child's spontaneous actions , cognitive and functional reactions are also studied under this method. Information about the child is obtained from parents , guardians and relatives.

This method is very old. Tiedman first used this method in 1787. After this ( in 1885) Prayer used this method in Germany. Prayer has mentioned this method in detail in his book ' The Mind of the Child ' . Sheen and Valentine used this method in America and England. This method has proved to be very useful. Through this, a systematic description of the development of the child is obtained. This method is simple and easy. There are some flaws in this method , which are as follows-

( i) Parents often give wrong information about their children.

( ii) No definite plan is followed in compiling the events of life.

( iii) If the facts in the collected events are corrupted, then the results obtained from them do not have validity and reliability.

These defects of the biography method can be controlled and removed by being cautious.

(2) Subjective Marking Method- This method is used to study the personality of children. Under this, the informal behaviour of the child is studied. This method is engineering. In this method, many things are known about children. Many of these things and facts are useful. Whatever the child says and does , his personality is contained in it. Children who take interest in reading literature develop the possibilities of becoming writers.

This method is very simple. The information obtained by this method has proved useful in comparing it with the information obtained by other methods. Also, this method is considered completely subjective , because the experimenter analyses the results obtained by it with subjectivity.

(3) Controlled observation method- This method is helpful in marking the personal behaviour of the child. In this, the observer marks the behaviour of the child through a checklist or symptom sheet. Among the many techniques of this method, the main ones are as follows-

(i) Situational analysis- This method is used to study the behaviour of a child in different situations. The reason why there is a difference in the behaviour of the child with all parties like parents , teachers , friends , community etc. is known by analysing the situations in which the specified behaviour has been performed.

(ii) Community Survey- This method is used to study the children living in a community. This gives information about why a particular behaviour arises in the children of a particular community and why it is different from the behaviour of children of other communities .

(i i i) Time sampling- By this method, the development and behaviour of a child is observed at a fixed time. The difference in the physical development of many children in a year and its factors can be known by this method.

( iv) Check-list- This is a list of different types of development and behaviour of children. Behaviour and development are monitored by checking according to the items given in this list.

The limitations of the above four techniques are as follows-

( a) These can be used only by trained persons.

(b) Many children cannot be studied simultaneously through these methods.

While using these methods, there is difficulty in controlling the environment.

(4) Psychophysical method- By this method, behaviour is studied on the basis of the relationship between mind and body. Along with the development of the body, other mental powers of the body also develop. On the basis of this study, Binet conceived of intelligence quotient and replaced the idea of ​​mental age.

In this method , the relationship between stimulus and response is studied. The objective of this method is also to know what changes occur in the body and behaviour due to any stimulus. Therefore, D.K. Cadland has said - " Psychophysics establishes a relationship between stimuli and our psychological reactions to other stimuli. " Fechner has clarified it even more and said - " Psychophysics is the science of functional relationships of dependence between mind and body. " Through this method, an attempt is made to know the truth of the threshold of the creature. Limit method , mean error , continuous stimulation method etc. are used in this method.

(5) Questionnaire method- Answers to many questions are obtained from children. The development of the child is studied by studying their answers. G. Stanley Hall first prepared a list of 123 questions to study the children of Boston School. Piles , Stols etc. also resorted to this method. The limitations of this method are as follows-

( i) Children are unable to understand the meaning of the questions because of difficult language.

( ii) Wrong answers are given intentionally.

( iii) Answers to work related questions are not found.

( iv) Parents give biased answers.

(6) Therapeutic method- G. Lester Anderson has said about this method- “ It is generally used for the study of complex complexes related to specific learning , personality or behaviour and various clinical working methods and techniques are used according to the problem under consideration. Their aim is to identify or find out what are the requirements of their subject on the method ? Due to which reason or reasons this complex has arisen and what help should be given to the subject. ” Sometimes abnormal behaviour is found in children. If this abnormal behaviour is not treated in time, then mental insanity starts developing in them. Such children are treated only by therapeutic method.

(7) Experimental Method- This method is used to study the development of children in a planned environment. Crow and Crow have said about this method- “ The purpose of psychological experiment is to test any belief or idea related to human behaviour under certain circumstances or conditions. ” In this method, one group is controlled and the other is experimental. The results obtained from both the groups are compared. One-sided screen and photography dome method are the main experimental methods. This method is psychological , reliable and gives good results.

(8) Statistical Method: This method analyses the data obtained to determine the validity and reliability of the results.

Conclusion- One cannot depend on a single method for the study of child development and behaviour. Therefore, many methods are used for the study. The material for child study is obtained from these sources-

( i) From the child's current verbal-nonverbal behaviour.

( ii) By studying the things made by the child.

( iii) From information received from home, school , government authorities , health department , social organizations.

( iv) Through the child's introspection.

( v) From events of early life.

( vi) From the factors affecting the life of the child.

( vii) From the child's environment.

Nowadays, game method is also used in studying children. Psychometric tests , rating , scale , test results , relation with social pressure , validity and reliability , best results etc. are used to obtain information.

Stages of development :

While discussing the stages of development, Lobton has said- “ The span of our life is divided into many parts and each part has the problem of adjustment. Age and time are not related to the initial classes. This is a system of solving the problem. Throughout life, a person invents the method and technique of solving his problems. Some of these methods are useful and some are useless. These can be superimposed from one part to another or cannot be done. ” It is clear from this statement that the process of development is one but it is divided into many stages.

The development of an individual is completed in several stages. There have been many differences among scholars regarding this process of development. Here we are presenting the classification of stages of development done by some scholars.

( 1) Saikhe has classified the development process as follows:

1. Infancy- from 1 to 5 years

2. Childhood- 5 to 12 years

3. Adolescence- from 12 to 18 years

( 2) Ross - in his own way has described the stages of development as follows-

1. Infancy- 1 to 3 years

2. Early childhood- 3 to 6 years

3. Late childhood- 6 to 12 years

4. Adolescence- from 12 to 18 years

(3) Kolesnik has classified the development process into several stages-

1. From conception to birth- prenatal period

2. Neonatal- from birth to 3 or 4 weeks

3. Early infancy- from 1 or 2 months to 15

4. Late infancy- from 15 to 30 months

5. Early childhood- 2.5 to 5 years

6. Middle childhood- 9 to 12 years

7. Adolescence- from 12 to 21 years

Scholars have generally made this classification the basis of their studies. On this basis, we have discussed the above mentioned issues in this book.

( 1) Gestational period - 250 or 300 days from conception

(i) Embryo- 0 to 2 weeks

( ii) Embryonic- 2 to 10 weeks

(iii) Fetus – 10 weeks to birth

( 2) Childhood- from birth to 12 years

( i) Infancy- from birth to 3 years

 (ii) Pre-infancy period- 3 to 6 years

( iii) Late childhood- 6 to 13 years

( 3) Adolescence- 13 to 19 years

( 4) Maturity – 20 years and above

For the convenience of study, we will divide the development process as follows-

( i) Conception period- from pregnancy to birth

( ii) Infancy- from birth to 5 years

( iii) Childhood- 6 to 12 years

( iv) Adolescence- from 12 to 19 years

On the basis of the above division, we are presenting the discussion here-

( 1) Conception period- According to Carmichael- “ Knowledge of conception behaviour has thrown light on psychological problems. For example, this study has provided an answer to the traditional question of determination of mental development of an adult by heredity and environment. There has been a conflict between the views of experience-based and birth-based understanding. Whether development is continuous or an intermittent process , whether behaviour is general at first and specific later or specific at first and general later , which is basically the nature of human learning , all these have been expressed through the study of conception behaviour.”

The process of pregnancy from the stage of conception to the birth of the child is completed in three stages. First, the organism is formed from the embryonic stage. Its existence is due to the union of the paternal and maternal cords. In the embryonic stage, first the head and then the sprouts of the organs emerge. The second stage is embryonic. In this, the various organs of the body develop from 2 weeks to 10 weeks. The third stage is the fetus. In this, the mother experiences the movement and motion of the child's organs. This stage lasts till the birth of the child. The study of pregnancy started from the 19th century. Some of the conclusions of these studies are as follows-

( i) In the first two months, the size of the head is half that of the body.

( ii) In the tenth month the head becomes one-fourth of the rest of the body.

( iii) After 14 weeks, foetal movement can be felt.

( iv) In the sixth month the movement of the foetus becomes rapid and complex.

This action-reaction is completely affected by the internal and external environment.

( 2) Infancy- The period from birth to the age of 5 years is called infancy. At the time of birth, the length of the child is about 20 inches and weight is 5 to 8 pounds. At this age the child is completely dependent. He has to depend on the family members for development.

(3) Childhood- Scholars have considered childhood to be from 6 to 12 years. During this period, the child's physical development continues. Along with physical development, his social , cultural and emotional development also takes place.

(4) Adolescence- Adolescence is considered to be from 13 to 19 years. Western scholars have also called it ' Teen Age ' . This stage is considered to be the most complex stage of development.

Now we have said that there are different stages of a child's development. In these different stages, the child's personality develops in many ways. The nature of the process of development contains physical , mental, emotional and social elements. Among the forms of development , (i) physical , (ii) mental , (iii) emotional , (iv) social , (v) movement , and ( vi) language development are the main ones.

Importance of the study of development :

The study of child development has become an important achievement of family and social life today. Child development , like other social sciences, has become an independent knowledge. Its study is considered a unit of complete human development. Crow and Crow have therefore said - " Psychologists , teachers , parents , social workers interested in the field of welfare of the individual and society have started giving importance to the study of child development. The child is the father of the person , the first six years of the child are important , etc., have only increased the importance of the study of child development."

The study of child development has presented two aspects to the society- ( i) practical , (ii) theoretical. Knowledge of both theoretical and practical aspects is essential for every parent in the society . The process of child development cannot be carried out efficiently in the absence of this knowledge. The basis of a child's development is the education given to him , which should be given according to the child's tendencies and needs.

These are the benefits to parents and future mothers by studying child development:

( 1) Knowledge of child nutrition- The entire process from conception of the child to his first appearance in the world is important in itself. If the mother and her guardians have the knowledge of the gradual development of the child at an early age , they will take proper care of the child and the pregnant woman will be protected from the calamities of pregnancy. Margaret Mead and Neil Newton have analyzed those elements in their writings which fit men and women into the parental and family structure. The answers to basic questions like motherhood , fatherhood responsibilities are obtained only through a deep study of child development. This science has proved useful in giving information about how child development is nurtured in different sections of society , what are their social cultural traditions , etc.

(2) Knowledge of parenthood- Margaret Mead and Neil Newton have emphasized in their studies of child development that men and women do not acquire parenthood merely by responding to sexual relations. That parenthood , whether paternity or motherhood , develops in the socio-cultural environment and progresses in psychological circumstances. The legality of sexual relations creates legal and responsible parenthood. The result of illegal sexual contact is antisocial and children born in this situation do not have respect in society.

(3) Normal behaviour of the child- The main aim of child development is that the child should develop in such a way that normal behaviour is generated in him. Human rights exist only when the mental and physical development of the child is normal. Carlo Valenti concluded from a study that 2% of children develop abnormally. This study of child development motivates parents to ensure that their behaviour is normal. Only when the behaviour and development of their child is normal , both of them can be useful to the society.

(4) Trust of children- It is often seen that children lie to their parents. In such a situation, the child loses the trust of his parents. The study of child development gives social guidance to parents and draws attention to those circumstances and measures through which goodwill develops between parents and children .

( 5) Knowledge of stages of development- By studying child development, parents come to know how a child develops from infancy to adulthood. What physical , emotional, social , moral and language-related changes take place in him during these different stages.

( 6) Knowledge of socialization- Socialization of a child is an important event in his life. Due to this he becomes useful for the society. Studies of child development point towards various processes of socialization. The importance of this study in making the conditions of family, society and community more useful for socialization is self-evident. Contact , interaction, research behavior point towards the socialization of the child. Similarly, the tendency to explore is revealed by curiosity-based behavior.

(7) Personality of the child - The personality of the child can be developed easily by studying child development. The child has many powers and abilities. This ability develops in the right direction only when the parents have knowledge of the various stages of the child's development. A child who is full of creative qualities cannot be developed through normal education. Therefore, by giving the desired direction to the child's intelligence , talent etc. , many qualities of his personality can be developed.

(8) Games and children- Games are an important part of a child's life. Games are the factors that give impetus to the various stages of a child's development. The study of child development tells parents how games should be included in the child's development process so that he can have a balanced development. There is diversity in the games played by the child at home , school and community . Therefore, child development also gives advice on its selection.

(9) Health- The physical and mental health of a child is an important link in his development. Children who have poor physical health are also found to be mentally unhealthy. In such a situation, it is important for the child to remain healthy. The child's fitness depends on the food given to him and his nutrition patterns. This information comes from the study of child development.

(10) Educational process- The study of child development has changed the standards of child education. Parents are as much responsible for the educational development of the child as the teacher. Interest , inclination , ability , capacity etc. have become very important in the process of education of the child. The curriculum has started to be prepared according to age , intelligence and environment. Many teaching methods like Dalton , Kindergarten , Montessori , Nai Talim etc. give special importance to the child. While preparing the time-table, maximum attention is paid to the capacity and strength of the child.

(11) Emphasis on individual differences- The basis of child development is the individual. It does not consider the similar behaviour of two individuals to be the result of similar actions and reactions. There is no similarity between two children of the same parents. One understands something quickly and is unable to understand it. Therefore, a child with such individual differences does not require individual teaching, the other does. The study of child development therefore emphasizes on the separate education of retarded , gifted and handicapped children. The reality is that child development has given a new direction to children and has given birth to a movement. As a result of this movement, the study of child development has become scientific. In the words of Blair , “ To achieve success, a modern parent must be an expert who understands children, how they develop , learn and adjust. A stranger or a person ignorant of psychological methods cannot fulfill the responsibilities and functions of a parent. ”

Humanistic Psychology and Developmental Theory :

Psychoanalytic psychologists believe that behavioral changes in a child develop due to basic instincts or innate motivations, while cognitive development theory and social learning theory believe that most of the behavior in children is learned due to the influence of environmental factors. But some psychologists (Maslow , Carl Rogers) adopted a different approach to explain development, which was called humanistic approach. Humanistic theory is also called self theory.

Maslow is considered the spiritual father of humanistic psychology. Maslow propounded the humanistic theory of development in 1960. Humanistic psychologists not only criticized the ideologies of psychoanalysis and behaviorism, but also believed that psychoanalysis and behaviorism had adopted a very narrow approach to development.

In his theory, Maslow has given importance to the individual growth, personality values ​​and self-direction capability of an individual. Maslow believes that the development of an individual takes place in an organized manner. He has given a lot of importance to internal forces in development. Maslow believes that an individual is the center of many psychological powers and capabilities. In the course of development, every child develops the ability to recognize himself and self-awareness within himself, due to which the child or the individual starts knowing all the needs and also gets to know his capabilities and limitations, due to which personality development begins in the child. For this reason, Maslow's theory is also known as the total dynamic theory. The explanation of Maslow's theory is as follows-

1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory :

Abraham H. Maslow had put forward this ideology in 1943. It has received wide recognition in management science. According to this ideology, there is a hierarchy of human needs. In this hierarchy, man can be motivated to fulfill his unsatisfied needs. A person's needs are endless but he tries to fulfill them in a sequence. Therefore, by knowing the level of his unsatisfied needs, motivations can be provided for their fulfillment. This ideology is based on the following beliefs-

(i) Categories of needs- According to Maslow, a person has infinite needs which keep arising even after continuous fulfillment. These needs of a person can be divided into five categories- physical , protective , social , self-respect and self-development. Man's physical and security related needs are natural and innate , while love , respect , social prestige , ego related needs are not innate but are developed through experience , education , culture and society.

(ii) Need Hierarchy- According to Maslow, needs can be ranked on the basis of their strength and possibility of recurrence. It is clear from Figure- 1 that on this basis, physiological needs come in the first category and self-development needs come in the fifth category. According to Maslow, these categories of needs and their hierarchy are universal and apply to every culture.

(iii) Deprivation and dominance - According to Maslow, the less a need is satisfied , the more effective it becomes for the person. That is, the importance and power of unsatisfied needs are always more. The impact of unsatisfied needs of lower level is more than other needs. Therefore, until these are not fulfilled , all the attention and resources of the person will be engaged in fulfilling them.

(iv) Satisfaction and motivation- The needs which are satisfied , their importance and strength diminish and the needs of the next level become active. In other words , when the needs of a level are satisfied properly, only then the needs of the next levels get awakened in sequence. Satisfied needs do not motivate human behaviour.

( v) Extreme importance of physical needs - Physical needs are the most important. According to Maslow , " A person who lacks food , security , love and self-respect will first demand food and nothing else. "

( vi) Self-satisfaction never occurs- Unlike lower level needs, satisfaction never occurs at the level of self-development. Hence, the basis of motivation always remains present.

Hierarchy of Requirements :

In Maslow's ideology, the hierarchy of needs is as follows-

( 1) Physiological needs - Physiological needs are essential for sustaining human life. These include air , water , food, sleep , clothing , shelter , sexual intercourse etc. These are of recurrent nature.

(2) Safety needs - Safety needs arise after the physiological needs of an individual are satisfied. Every individual wants physical , economic and psychological security against fear , loss , disease , dangers , terror , fear and risks.

( 3) Social needs - Social needs express a person's desire for love , affection , cooperation , intimacy , belongingness , friendship and social relations. Being a social animal, a person wants to fulfill these needs.

(4) Self-esteem needs - After the satisfaction of social needs, the ego and self-esteem needs of the individual become active. Being a self-respecting individual, he starts desiring respect , appreciation , recognition , position , fame , prestige , freedom , achievement etc. in the organisation. These needs reveal the importance of the individual and instill self-confidence in him.

(5) Self-growth needs - These needs are related to the overall development of the individual's abilities , talents and potentialities. Every individual desires to develop his inner potentialities and reach his highest heights and remains restless without reaching this state. According to Maslow , " Self-growth is the desire to become more than what a person is and to become all that he can become . "

Maslow's  

According to Maslow, the order of needs depends on various things. Some of the important things are as follows-

(i) Higher needs are the result of the satisfaction of lower needs.

( ii) Any need will act as a motivation for a human being only when his other lower level needs have been fulfilled.

( iii) The higher the needs , the less important they will be from the survival point of view.

(iv) Mental tension is reduced in fulfilling higher needs.

( v) Fulfillment of higher needs increases mental satisfaction.

( vi) Higher needs depend on the external environment and economic conditions.

( vii) Higher-level needs play a more important role in a person's self-evaluation.

Evaluation of Maslow's ideology :

Maslow's ideology is the fundamental ideology of motivation and human behaviour. It has been accepted in most countries due to its practicality. Management thinkers have developed other theories of motivation on its basis. Managers can motivate their subordinates by knowing their unsatisfied needs through this ideology. Human behaviour can be understood very easily through the hierarchy of needs. But many management thinkers have also criticized this ideology, which are as follows-

(1) Non-applicability of Hierarchy of Needs - Critics are of the view that individuals do not fulfill their needs in the order described by Maslow. According to L.H. Porter , " Needs do not follow a hierarchy , especially when lower-level needs are satisfied. " Several research works have proved that a person's family background and social beliefs also influence the form of needs. It has also been found that the importance of higher-level needs varies from person to person.

(2) Ambiguity of classification- It is not possible to make a clear distinction between most of the needs as they overlap with each other. In addition , this classification of Maslow cannot be considered final. Maslow himself described two other needs a few years later- integration and spiritual needs.

(3) Complexity of behaviour- Human behaviour is determined and motivated by various factors. Hence, sometimes social and self-esteem related needs may arise even when primary needs are not satisfied.

(4) Satisfaction is not necessary - Many researches have made it clear that sometimes some needs do not decrease with satisfaction but increase , such as sexual and ego related needs. Hence, controlling and satisfying them becomes impossible.

(5) This school of thought holds that a human being has only one need at a time, while in practice a person may have more than one need at a time.

(6) It is difficult to know which need of a person is important and which is not.

(7) Human beings are sensitive in their behaviour. Therefore, sometimes ego or esteem needs may arise even when basic needs are not met.

( 8) This ideology is based on the satisfaction of the needs of the individuals but some needs are never satisfied.

Development of a self-actualized person: Healthy personality :

Maslow ( 1971) has described school as the best place to encourage self-actualizing individuals. Maslow believes that in school, students get a suitable opportunity to recognize their independence , find a profession according to their interests and understand good values ​​and the students who make such efforts develop self-actualization due to their efforts , in other words, they develop a healthy personality.

Maslow has also described the characteristics of self-actualized people. To know these characteristics, he has studied and analyzed the personality characteristics and qualities of many great men. The names of the self-actualized people studied by Maslow are as follows - Abraham Lincoln , Jefferson , Whitman , Beethoven , Roosevelt , Einstein etc. Maslow has described the following characteristics or traits of self-actualized people -

( 1) Self-realized people are reality-oriented. Their perception is based on reality. There is no irregularity in it.

( 2) These people perceive themselves , others, and natural objects in the environment exactly as they are.

(3) Self-actualized people exhibit simplicity , naturalness and spontaneity.

( 4) The behaviour of these persons is problem-centred rather than self-centred.

( 5) Self-actualized people have a sense of detachment and love privacy.

(6) Self-actualized people prefer independence and autonomy.

( 7) Self-actualised people look at people and events from a new perspective. They do not like to look at them in a clichéd way.

(8) Self-realized people have supernatural powers and experiences. They are healthy , courageous and decisive, that is, if we put these characteristics together, then these people have top experiences.

(9) Self-actualized people have a considerable amount of humanism and also have more social interests.

(10) Self-actualized people do not tend to form superficial relationships with many people. They have close relationships with a few important people.

( 11) Self-actualized people are more likely to have democratic values ​​and attitudes.

(12) Self-realized people have no confusion between means and ends.

( 13) In self-realized people, their sense of humor is philosophical ; their sense of humor is not malicious in any way.

(14) These people love creativity.

(15) Self-actualized people do not have conformity to culture.

( 16) Self-actualized people adjust to their environment and thrive.